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The New Process of Getting Well With SUPER Glyconutrients™ the Definition of Getting Well has Changed Significantly. The actual mechanism of how these glycoproteins work their magic isn't fully understood but a few basic fundamentals are coming to light. Read More > |
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- D-Galactose:
Galactose is an glycoprotein found in abundance in the diet, especially in dairy products, where it co-exists with lactose, as well as in the pectins of some fruits. There are many people who are lactose-intolerant and, therefore, may also be lacking in Galactose. As with all the glycoproteins, galactose is no different in that it is necessary for cell communication. If just one of the sugars is missing in the diet, communication breaks down, resulting in disease. Depending on which sugar is missing will determine which disease forms.
Absorption:
Galactose is absorbed in the jejunum part of the intestine where it competes with glucose for transport. To some extent, Galactose is absorbed in the mouth across the buccal membrane by a transport also shared with glucose.
Bowel disorders can affect absorption of galactose, as well as any of the other sugars. Usually, it is because of abnormal brush-border cells of the intestinal epithelium which then results in diarrhea. Often, a combination of d'friendly floraE and enzyme supplementation, as well as the eight glycoproteins, will, in time, correct any digestive abnormalities.
Approximately 30% of the galactose is incorporated into glycogen, although its preferred substrate is Glucose. Another 27-47% is oxidized to CO2, while the remainder is utilized for glycoprotein and glycolipid biosynthesis for nutritional distribution. It is becoming increasingly evident that both glycoproteins E“ Galactose and Mannose E“ are very important for maintaining nutritional balance.
Excretion:
Galactose is excreted by the kidneys, using a Glucose transporter. Although its excretion is not altered in diabetic patients, clearance is reduced in ageing. Since Galactose is metabolized mainly in the liver, its clearance has been used as a marker for liver dysfunction and liver blood flow. Galactose has also been found in the feces of infants who are breast fed.
Safety:
There does not appear to be any side effects from using a supplemental Galactose, unless one is Galactose-intolerant, but this is an extremely rare condition.
There were some concerns raised over low birth weight infants or those born prior to 37 weeks gestation. It appeared that these infants had some trouble absorbing Galactose, which researchers attributed to immature liver function.
Based on research, some recommend as much as 50 grams in a healthy 150-pound adult as a safe dose. However, much less is more advisable, and since most of it is eliminated within 8 hours, dosing should occur at least twice a day to maintain optimal Galactose blood levels.
- L-Fucose
Fucose is one of the eight glycoproteins the body requires for optimal function of cell-to-cell communication. The L form is the only common form of the sugar, while the D form is a synthetic galactose analogue. Fucose should not be confused with Fructose, which is a monosaccharide found in fruits and honey.
Absorption:
When taken orally, Fucose is readily absorbed from the small intestine and incorporated either directly or after metabolism into glycoproteins. Unabsorbed Fucose is metabolized by friendly intestinal bacteria.
Excretion:
In humans, Fucose is excreted mainly in the urine at a rate of approximately 17 micrograms per minute. Nursing mothers also eliminate Fucose from the breast milk. During the latter stages of pregnancy, excretion of Fucose in the urine is markedly increased, which is consistent with fetal development and the transfer of immunity to the newborn.
Safety: Studies have shown that, when Fucose is given in extraordinarily high amounts, there were no side effects. The only remotely related oral toxicity that was found was from animals ingesting a diet composed of 20% Fucose. This amount appeared to reduce nerve conduction velocity as well as collagen production. What similar effects would be in humans has yet to be determined. However, microscopic examination of the liver, kidney, pancreas, and the sternal bone marrow of Fucose-treated rats revealed no abnormalities. According to available studies, it appears that oral doses as great as 34 grams in a healthy 150-pound adult is considered safe. Maximum blood levels would be expected one hour after ingestion and would be eliminated from the bloodstream eight to twelve hours later. Therefore, twice daily doses of any amount are recommended to maintain sufficient blood levels.
- D-Mannose:
Mannose appears to be the foundation of all the glycoproteins. It is involved in so many fundamental cell actions that any deficiency of this one saccharide can lead to a host of physical problems. Called D-Mannose, this form is now sold as a remedy for UTIs (urinary tract infections). Like Xylose and Xylitol, Mannose also has its sugar alcohol in the form known as Mannitol.
Absorption:
Mannose is absorbed 8 times more slowly than glucose; and, when ingested, it is not converted to glycogen or stored in the liver, but rather Mannose goes directly to the blood stream from the upper gastrointestinal tract. Furthermore, Mannose easily crosses the placenta allowing it to assist in fetal formation. Amniotic fluid has been shown to contain Mannose in amounts comparable to concentrations in the blood. Within an hour after ingestion, Mannose is widely distributed throughout body tissues and fluids. Highest levels are generally found in the liver and intestines.
Excretion:
Based on animal studies, it appears that Mannose is actively reabsorbed by the kidneys with very little being eliminated in the urine. There appears to be two different transport sites on the surface of the kidney tubules; one for Glucose and Galactose and the other for Mannose. Although Glucose and Galactose are excreted in the urine, very little Mannose is eliminated.
Safety:
There have not been any adverse reactions to high doses of Mannose either orally or from injection. Based on animal studies, the highest dose for humans could be around 23 grams for a healthy 150-pound adult. However, that much is hardly necessary. In humans, no adverse effects have been noted when oral doses of approximately
15 grams were administerd. Even at oral doses as extreme as 53 grams per day given over an 11-month period showed no adverse side effects. However, when excessively large amounts (35 grams per hour) of Mannose was injected intravenously continuously for 10 hours, human subjects did experience fatigue, anorexia, malaise, and massive uric acid crystalluria. No matter how small or large the dosage, it should be divided in at least two portions so as to maintain a functional level in the blood.
- D-Xylose:
Xylose is an glycoprotein saccharide of the pentose class and vital to cellular communication. Xylose has a similar name to the sugar substitute called Xylitol. Xylitol is not the same thing as Xylose and cannot be used in its place.
Absorption:
Xylose is absorbed from the jejunum area of the small intestine by a mechanism that is different than the transporter for glucose. Although absorption appears to be slower in children when given orally, it does not appear to be age-dependent in adults since other factors are more likely to be involved in absorption rates. Once Xylose enters the bloodstream, it is quickly distributed to the liver where it is metabolized. Xylose also travels to other tissues where it is required, including the kidneys, fat, and muscles.
Excretion:
About one-quarter of a Xylose dose appears to be excreted in the urine within five hours of ingestion but increases following the consumption of fruits and vegetables, known to be high in pentose sugars. This suggests that Xylose may compete with aldopentoses (monosaccharides each with five carbon atoms) for reabsorptive transport in the kidney. However, there are other factors that influence its secretion including overall renal function, any liver disease present, intestinal bacteria, and how effectively it can be utilized in tissues.
Safety:
According to scientific studies, Xylose is safely consumed in daily amounts as great as 35 grams for a 150-pound adult. A minimum amount has not yet been determined; but it is recommended that, because Xylose is easily eliminated from the bloodstream, doses should be at least twice a day. As with all things, amounts taken should be small to begin with, increasing to what is tolerable and functional.
- N-acetylglucosamine:
N-acetylglucosamine is another member of the group of eight glycoproteins. It is best known by its derivative, Glucosamine, which is now a popular natural remedy for osteoarthritis.
Absorption:
There are three common commercial forms of Glucosamine: N-acetylglucosamine, hydrochloride, and sulfate. Scientific literature does not support the use of N-acetylglucosamine or the hydrochloride form. Human studies show that Glucosamine Sulfate is almost 98% absorbed. It is then distributed in the body primarily to joint tissues where it is incorporated into the connective tissue matrix of cartilage, ligaments and tendons.
Apparently, it is the sulfur component of Glucosamine sulfate that is crucial to its mechanism of action. In fact, N-acetylglucosamine and Glucosamine sulfate are two entirely different molecules. The structural difference is this: N-acetylglucosamine has a portion of an acetic acid molecule attached to it, causing the body to handle the two compounds differently. Glucosamine sulfate absorption appears to be active, whereas no mechanism exists for the absorption of the N-form. It is advisable to use Glucosamine sulfate in conjunction with Chondroitin sulfate, since both enhance the absorption of the other.
There are several reasons why the absorption of N-acetylglucosamine is questionable in humans as it is quickly digested by intestinal bacteria. It is a known binder of dietary lectins in the gut, with the complex being excreted in the feces rather than being absorbed, and a large percentage cannot penetrate the cell membranes; and, as a result, it is broken down by intestinal cells and rendered useless to glycoproteins and mucopolysaccharides.
Excretion:
Animal studies reveal that Glucosamine is eliminated in the urine. More information is needed to see if the substance is eliminated by other means or if there are alterations in excretion during disease states. According to scientific calculations that are based on animal studies, elimination of this sugar in humans would take 8-12 hours.
Safety:
There does not appear to be any side effects or safety issues when taking supplemental Glucosamine, although it may delay insulin-mediated glucose uptake in some people. Therefore, diabetics should be cautious when starting out with this sugar. As with all of the glycoproteins, dosage should begin with small amounts and work up to levels that are functional for the individual.
Based on information available to date, it appears that 1 gram in a 150-pound healthy adult is a safe maximum dose to be taken daily in divided amounts.
- N-acetylneuraminic Acid:
N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid) is found in a wide variety of substances and tissues in animals and humans, occurring most abundantly in glycoproteins and glycolipids.
An acidic aminosugar was first isolated and named sialic acid by one scientist. Another isolated a similar crystallized form and called it neuraminic acid. When both were found to be the same molecule, the correct structure was proposed by a third scientist. All three finally agreed to use sialic acid as the family name covering all of the more than thirty derivatives of neuraminic acid, with N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-glycolylneuraminic acid forming the core structures.
Sialic acid is widely distributed throughout human tissues and found in several fluids, including serum, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, urine, amniotic fluid, and mother's milk. In experimental mammals, it is found in high levels in the brain, adrenal glands, and the heart. In humans, concentrations are found in the brain and kidney as well as many other tissues.
Absorption:
Although specific information is not yet known, it is assumed that sialic acid is readily absorbed when ingested. This is based on its appearance in numerous glycoconjugates (a molecule with one or more sugars attached to a protein or lipid) throughout the body and its excretion in the urine.
Enzymes involved in sialic acid metabolism also appear to be important in the metabolic regulation of other glycoproteins and glycoconjugates. Sialic acid can be manufactured, by certain enzyme action in the body, from Glucosamine and N-acetylmannosamine.
Excretion:
Sialic acid is rapidly eliminated via the kidneys. In lab animals, at least 98% of ingested sialic acid is found in the urine six hours after ingestion while about 90% appears in the urine within 10 minutes of an IV dose. During lactation, excretion of the sugar is markedly increased. When this data is applied to humans, most of the sugar would be expected to be excreted within 8 hours of ingestion. Therefore, it, or the other sugars, does not accumulate in body tissues.
Safety:
There does not appear to be any data that indicates any adverse reactions to a supplementation of sialic acid. On the contrary, researchers who, consistantly used high doses in experimental animals, found that the learning abilities of these animals increased. Nor did it seem to matter whether the dose was given orally or intravenously, the result was the same, indicating that the sugar is just as reactive using either route.
However, if there is a metabolic disorder that prevents the proper absorption of the sugar, disorders can be aggravated, causing a reversal in the positive effects seen in others. Malabsorption could result in mental retardation and ataxia (muscle coordination failure), as well as enlarged livers, developmental delays, and an excess excretion of sialic acid in the urine. Therefore, establishing whether this or other sugars are properly assimilated is very important. This is just one reason why taking all eight glycoproteins together is much better than trying to take them individually and guessing the amounts. All work together to help each other, thereby drastically reducing the risk of problems when taking only one sugar.
Research dose levels, on baby pigs, of 240 mg/kg of boby weight per day as been shown to be safe over a period of weeks. This would indicate 500 mg a day would be safe for a healthy 150-pound adult. Information is not available as to a minimum daily amount.
- N-acetylgalactosamine:
N-acetylgalactosamine is the least known of the eight glycoproteins. As with the others, this one is also important for proper cell-to-cell communication. This communication is important for both normal systemic function and in such disease processes as cancer, inflammation, and immunity.
Absorption:
It appears that N-acetylgalactosamine is absorbed from the intestines by a specific transporter, but more research needs to be done on this. As it stands now, there appears to be a specific transporter for this saccharide that differs from that used by Glucose. Researchers are just beginning to realize the existence of specific intestinal cell transporters for all the different glycoproteins.
Excretion:
There is little specific data available, but it appears that N-acetylgalactosamine is excreted in much the same way as the other carbohydrates; that is, in the urine, since a specific enzyme for this saccharide is located in the kidney and could be used for recycling the sugar. Studies indicate that most of an oral dose would be eliminated from the bloodstream after 8-12 hours.
Safety:
Since research is fairly new for this particular sugar, little is known for sure. During lab experiments, exceptionally high doses are used. Therefore, to equate a safe dose for humans at this time is pure speculation. What is known is that when extremely high doses of N-acetylgalactosamine are given to experimental animals, a type of hepatitis is created. As much as 280 mg. twice a day has been shown to be safe for a healthy 150-pound adult. Information is not available as to a minimum daily amount. As with other glycoproteins, whatever amount is taken should be divided into two daily doses to keep blood levels fairly constant.
Neither the statements made on this website nor any products offered on this website have been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. The products and information mentioned on this site are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. Information and statements made are for educational purposes and are not intended to replace the advice of your doctor. GlycoMeds does not dispense medical advice, prescribe, or diagnose illness. The views and nutritional advice expressed by GlycoMeds are not intended to be a substitute for conventional medical service. If you have a medical condition, see your physician of choice.
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Copyright© 2011, GlycoMeds
Web services provided by eCreations